1. Asexual Reproduction:
   • Asexual reproduction involves the production of offspring without the involvement of gametes (sperm and egg).
   • Common methods include binary fission, budding, fragmentation, and spore formation.
   • Advantages include rapid reproduction and the ability to produce genetically identical offspring.
   • Examples: Bacteria reproduce by binary fission, yeast by budding, and starfish by fragmentation.
2. Sexual Reproduction:
   • Sexual reproduction requires the fusion of specialized reproductive cells called gametes (sperm and egg).
   • It leads to genetic diversity among offspring due to the combination of genetic material from two parents.
   • Examples: Humans, animals, and many plants reproduce sexually.
3. Binary Fission:
   • Binary fission is a type of asexual reproduction in which a single parent organism divides into two identical daughter cells.
   • Common in single-celled organisms like bacteria and some protists.
4. Budding:
   • Budding is a form of asexual reproduction in which a small bud or outgrowth develops on the parent organism and eventually detaches to become a new organism.
   • Common in organisms like yeast and hydra.
5. Fragmentation:
   • Fragmentation involves the breaking of the parent organism into pieces, each of which can grow into a new individual.
   • Common in certain types of worms and sea stars.
6. Spore Formation:
   • Spore formation is a method of asexual reproduction where specialized cells called spores are produced, which can develop into new individuals under suitable conditions.
   • Common in fungi, ferns, and some bacteria.
7. External Fertilization:
   • In some aquatic organisms, such as fish and amphibians, fertilization occurs externally in the water.
   • Both eggs and sperm are released into the environment, where they meet and fertilize.
8. Internal Fertilization:
   • Internal fertilization occurs in many terrestrial animals, where sperm fertilize eggs inside the female’s body.
   • It provides protection and allows for the development of offspring in a controlled environment.
9. Viviparous vs. Oviparous:
   • Viviparous animals give birth to live offspring, while oviparous animals lay eggs that hatch outside the body.
10. Alternation of Generations:
    • Some plants, like ferns, exhibit a life cycle that includes both haploid (gametophyte) and diploid (sporophyte) generations.
11. Parthenogenesis:
    • Parthenogenesis is a form of asexual reproduction in which an egg develops into an embryo without fertilization.
    • Seen in some insects, reptiles, and fish.
12. Hermaphroditism:
    • Some organisms have both male and female reproductive organs, allowing them to mate with any member of their species.
    • Common in some snails, earthworms, and plants.
13. Cloning:
    • Cloning involves the production of genetically identical organisms from a single parent through asexual means or in a laboratory setting.

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